Something interesting I found in rabbinical literature, that likely Islam borrowed from rabbis. It suggests substitutionary atonement. This passage from midrash says Esau will take on the sins of Israel! The logic is a bit absurd but this is not uncommon, you see similar used to support the righteous dead atoning for sin. Interesting how rabbis speak of the righteous atoning for others sins by their death, and here you see the wicked making atonement for the sins of the more righteous! Yet they some how find the atonement of Christ as wicked, impossible, and unjust!
First Breshit Rabbah aka Genesis Rabbah, a commentary on the book of Genesis:
וַיֹּאמֶר יַעֲקֹב אֶל רִבְקָה אִמּוֹ הֵן עֵשָׂו אָחִי אִישׁ שָׂעִר (בראשית כז, יא), גְּבַר שֵׁדִין, כְּמָה דְאַתְּ אָמַר (ישעיה יג, כא): וּשְׂעִירִים יְרַקְּדוּ שָׁם, (בראשית כז, יא): וְאָנֹכִי אִישׁ חָלָק, כְּמָה דְאַתְּ אָמַר (דברים לב, ט): כִּי חֵלֶק ה' עַמּוֹ. רַבִּי לֵוִי אָמַר מָשָׁל לְקַוָּץ וְקֵרֵחַ, שֶׁהָיוּ עוֹמְדִין עַל שְׂפַת הַגֹּרֶן, וְעָלָה הַמּוֹץ בַּקַּוָּץ וְנִסְתַּבֵּךְ בִּשְׂעָרוֹ, עָלָה הַמּוֹץ בַּקֵּרֵחַ וְנָתַן יָדוֹ עַל רֹאשׁוֹ וְהֶעֱבִירוֹ. כָּךְ עֵשָׂו הָרָשָׁע מִתְלַכְלֵךְ בַּעֲוֹנוֹת כָּל יְמוֹת הַשָּׁנָה וְאֵין לוֹ בַּמֶּה יְכַפֵּר, אֲבָל יַעֲקֹב מִתְלַכְלֵךְ בַּעֲווֹנוֹת כָּל יְמוֹת הַשָּׁנָה וּבָא יוֹם הַכִּפּוּרִים וְיֶשׁ לוֹ בַּמֶּה יְכַפֵּר, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (ויקרא טז, ל): כִּי בַיּוֹם הַזֶּה יְכַפֵּר. רַבִּי יִצְחָק אָמַר לֹא שָׁאוּל הוּא לָהּ וְלֹא שְׁאוּלָה הִיא לֵיהּ, אֶלָּא (ויקרא טז, כב): וְנָשָׂא הַשָּׂעִיר עָלָיו, זֶה עֵשָׂו, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: הֵן עֵשָׂו אָחִי אִישׁ שָׂעִר. (ויקרא טז, כב): אֶת כָּל עֲוֹנֹתָם, עֲוֹנוֹת תַּם, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (בראשית כה, כז): וְיַעֲקֹב אִישׁ תָּם. (בראשית כז, יב): אוּלַי יְמֻשֵּׁנִי אָבִי וְהָיִיתִי בְעֵינָיו כִּמְתַעְתֵּעַ, כְּמֵת וּכְתוֹעֶה וּכְעוֹבֵד עֲבוֹדַת כּוֹכָבִים. (בראשית כז, יב): וְהֵבֵאתִי עָלַי קְלָלָה וגו', אֲפִלּוּ בְּרָכָה אַחַת שֶׁהוּא עָתִיד לִתֵּן בַּסוֹף אֵינוֹ נוֹתְנָהּ לִי. (בראשית כז, יג): וַתֹּאמֶר לוֹ אִמּוֹ עָלַי קִלְלָתְךָ בְּנִי, רַבִּי אַבָּא בַּר כַּהֲנָא אָמַר אָדָם שֶׁחָטָא לֹא אִמּוֹ נִתְקַלְּלָה, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (בראשית ג, יז): אֲרוּרָה הָאֲדָמָה בַּעֲבוּרֶךָ, אַף אַתָּה עָלַי קִלְלָתְךָ בְּנִי. אָמַר רַבִּי יִצְחָק עָלַי לִכָּנֵס וְלוֹמַר לְאָבִיךָ יַעֲקֹב צַדִּיק וְעֵשָׂו רָשָׁע. (בראשית כז, יד): וַיֵּלֶךְ וַיִּקַּח וַיָּבֵא לְאִמּוֹ, אָנוּס וְכָפוּף וּבוֹכֶה. --Breshit Rabbah 65
Translation:
And Jacob said to Rebecca his mother, "Behold, Esau my brother is a hairy man" (Genesis 27:11), a man of demons, as it is said (Isaiah 13:21), "And goats (se’irim) shall dance there." "And I am a smooth man" (Genesis 27:11), as it is said (Deuteronomy 32:9), "For the Lord’s portion is His people." Rabbi Levi said: This is like a hairy man and a bald man standing at the edge of the threshing floor. The chaff rises and gets entangled in the hairy man’s hair, but when it rises to the bald man, he passes his hand over his head and removes it. So too, the wicked Esau becomes defiled with sins all the days of the year and has no means of atonement. But Jacob becomes defiled with sins all the days of the year, and when Yom Kippur comes, he has a means of atonement, as it is written (Leviticus 16:30), "For on this day atonement shall be made for you." Rabbi Yitzchak said: It is not borrowed by him nor lent to him; rather, "The goat shall bear upon it" (Leviticus 16:22)—this is Esau, as it is said, "Behold, Esau my brother is a hairy man." "All their iniquities" refers to the iniquities of the innocent (tam), as it is said (Genesis 25:27), "And Jacob was an innocent man." "Perhaps my father will feel me, and I shall seem to him as a deceiver" (Genesis 27:12), like a dead man, a wanderer, or an idol-worshipper. "And I shall bring a curse upon myself" (Genesis 27:12)—even a single blessing that he is destined to give in the end, he will not give to me. And his mother said to him, "Upon me be your curse, my son" (Genesis 27:13). Rabbi Abba bar Kahana said: When a man sins, it is not his mother who is cursed, as it is said (Genesis 3:17), "Cursed is the ground because of you." So too, "Upon me be your curse, my son." Rabbi Yitzchak said: Upon me to go in and tell your father that Jacob is righteous and Esau is wicked. "And he went, and took, and brought to his mother" (Genesis 27:14)—compelled, bent over, and weeping.--Genesis Rabbah 65:15 (see Hebrew link for a professional translation)
On this passage the following comments are provided by Talmudist Etz Yosef aka Enoch Zundel ben Joseph:
לא שאיל כו'. פרש"י לא המשל הזה שאול לדבר הזה. ולא הדבר הזה שאול הוא למשל. שלפי שהרבה משלים הם שאינם אלא זכר לדבר. ולא עיקר הדבר. לכן קאמר ר"י שמשל זה אינו כשאר משלים שהם רק בשאלה לזכר בעלמא ולא לעיקר. אלא משל זה הוא לעיקר הדבר שהרי מצינו מפורש במעשה יוהכ"פ מענינו של דבר דכתיב ונשא השעיר עליו ואין שעיר אלא עשו ואין תם אלא יעקב:
AI translation:
"Not borrowed, etc." Rashi explains: This parable is not borrowed for this matter, nor is this matter borrowed for the parable. For many parables are merely a reminder of the matter and not its essence. Therefore, Rabbi Yitzchak says that this parable is not like other parables, which are only borrowed as a mere reminder and not for the essence. Rather, this parable is for the essence of the matter, for we find it explicitly in the act of Yom Kippur regarding the essence of the matter, as it is written, "The goat shall bear upon it" (Leviticus 16:22), and "goat" refers only to Esau, and "innocent" (tam) refers only to Jacob.Commenting further on this is Yalkut which is commonly cited in rabbinical commentaries quote the Midrash too:
– נוֹטֵל הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא כָּל עֲוֹנוֹתֵיהֶם שֶׁל יִשְׂרָאֵל וְנוֹתְנָן עַל עֵשָׂו הָרָשָׁע, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: "וְנָשָׂא הַשָּׂעִיר עָלָיו" – וְאֵין שָׂעִיר אֶלָּא עֵשָׂו, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: "הֵן עֵשָׂו אָחִי אִישׁ שָׂעִר". "אֶת כָּל עֲוֹנֹתָם" – אָמַר עֵשָׂו: כַּמָּה כֹּחַ יֵשׁ לִי שֶׁאַתָּה נוֹתֵן עָלַי כָּל עֲוֹנוֹת יַעֲקֹב אָחִי. בְּאוֹתָהּ שָׁעָה נוֹטֵל הַקָּדוֹשׁ בָּרוּךְ הוּא עֲוֹנוֹתָם וְנוֹתְנוֹ עַל בְּגָדָיו וְנַעֲשׂוּ אֲדֻמִּים, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: "מַדּוּעַ אָדֹם לִלְבוּשֶׁךָ", יָשַׁב וּמְכַבְּסָן עַד שֶׁנַּעֲשׂוּ לְבָנִים שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר: "לְבוּשֵׁהּ כִּתְלַג חִוָּר". "אֶל אֶרֶץ גְּזֵרָה" – (כָּתוּב בְּרֶמֶז קט"ו).
AI translation:
“And the goat shall bear upon itself”—the Holy One, blessed be He, takes all the iniquities of Israel and places them upon Esau the wicked, as it is said: “And the goat shall bear upon itself”—and the goat is none other than Esau, as it is said: “Behold, my brother Esau is a hairy man” (Genesis 27:11). “All their iniquities”—Esau said: How much strength do I have that You place all the iniquities of my brother Jacob upon me? At that moment, the Holy One, blessed be He, takes their iniquities and places them on his garments, and they become red, as it is said: “Why is Your apparel red?” (Isaiah 63:2). He sat and washed them until they became white, as it is said: “His garment was as white as snow” (Daniel 7:9). “To a barren land”—(written in Remez 115).--Yalkut, Remez 576
Commentary Tirefet Yisrael states:
וכאשר אתה תבין עוד אלו שני המועדים, הנה הם שניהם שוים. וזה כי ביום הכפורים מקריבים שני שעירים (ויקרא טז, ה). ובמדרש (ב"ר סה, יד) "וקח לי משם שני גדיי עזים טובים" (בראשית כז, ט), טובים לך, טובים לבניך; טובים לך, שעל ידיהם אתה נוטל הברכות. וטובים לבניך, שעל ידם מתכפר להם, דכתיב (ויקרא טז, ל) "כי ביום הזה יכפר עליכם", עד כאן. ועוד במדרש, "ונשא השעיר עליו את כל עונותם" (ויקרא טז, כב), היה נוטל הקב"ה עונות ישראל, ונותן אותם על עשו, שנאמר (שם) "ונשא השעיר עליו את כל עונותם", ואין "שעיר" אלא עשו, שנאמר (בראשית כז, יא) "הן עשו אחי איש שעיר", עד כאן. הרי מדרגת יום כפורים שהוא יתברך היה נותן עונש של יעקב על עשו. וכן היא מדרגת פורים; מה שהיה רוצה המן, שהוא מזרע עשו, לעשות למרדכי, שהוא מזרע יעקב, שהיה חפץ לאבדו, נטל הקב"ה ונתן על זרע עשו, הוא המן, ונאבד. ודברים אלו הם דברים גדולים ומופלגים, ואין כאן מקומם, כי פירשנו דבר זה במקומו.כלל הדבר, מה שהיו ישראל מנצחים כח עשו, הוא מדרגה עליונה מעולם העליון. וכן ביום הכפורים נצוח סמאל, הוא* כח עשו, כמו שמבואר מדברי חכמים הוא למעלה מן עולם הזה. ולפיכך אמרו כי פורים ויום הכפורים לא יעברו ולא יהיו בטלים, כי אלו שנים הם בטול כח עשו שבא לעולם, כמו שהתבאר. ומאחר כי מדרגתם מעולם העליון, אין בטול להם אף לזמן התחיה, שיתבטלו עניני עולם הזה. ואין זה נחשב בטול התורה, כמו שהתבאר למעלה (ס"פ נב), כי עולם התחיה הוא סדר אחר, והשם יתברך סדר העולם לפי מה שראוי לעולם. אבל שתהיה התורה בטלה מכל וכל, דבר זה אינו, מן הטעם אשר התבאר לפני זה (שם), כי התורה כולא בה, כמו שאמרו (אבות פ"ה מכ"ב) 'הפוך בה דכולא בה', אף סדר התחיה. ולכך השגת התורה היא לעולם ולעולמי עולמים.
AI translation:
And when you further understand these two festivals, behold they are both equal. And this is because on Yom Kippur they offer two goats (Leviticus 16:5). And in the Midrash (Bereshit Rabbah 65:14) on the verse, “And fetch me from there two good kids of the goats” (Genesis 27:9)—“good for you, good for your children; good for you, for through them you receive the blessings. And good for your children, for through them atonement is made for them, as it is written (Leviticus 16:30), ‘For on this day shall atonement be made for you’”—end quote. And further in the Midrash, “And the goat shall bear upon him all their iniquities” (Leviticus 16:22). The Holy One, blessed be He, would take the iniquities of Israel and place them upon Esau, as it is stated (ibid.), “And the goat shall bear upon him all their iniquities.” And “goat” [se'ir] refers only to Esau, as it is stated (Genesis 27:11), “Behold, Esau my brother is a hairy man [ish sa'ir]”—end quote. Behold, the level of Yom Kippur is that He, may He be blessed, would place the punishment of Jacob upon Esau. And so it is the level of Purim; that which Haman, who was from the seed of Esau, wanted to do to Mordecai, who was from the seed of Jacob—for he desired to destroy him—the Holy One, blessed be He, took and placed upon the seed of Esau, that is Haman, and he was destroyed. And these matters are great and profound, and this is not their place, for we have explained this matter in its proper place. The general principle is: that by which Israel triumphs over the power of Esau is a supernal level from the upper world. And so too on Yom Kippur, the triumph over Samael, who is the power of Esau, is, as is clarified from the words of the sages, above this world. And therefore they said that Purim and Yom Kippur will not pass away nor be nullified, for these two [festivals] are the nullification of the power of Esau that came into the world, as has been explained. And since their level is from the upper world, they have no nullification, even in the time of the Resurrection, when the matters of this world will be nullified. And this is not considered a nullification of the Torah, as was explained above (see end of chapter 52), for the world of the Resurrection is a different order, and God, may He be blessed, ordered the world according to what is fitting for the world. But that the Torah should be nullified completely—this matter is not so, for the reason that was explained before this (there), for the Torah encompasses everything, as they said (Avot 5:22), “Turn it over and over for everything is in it”—even the order of the Resurrection. And therefore the attainment of the Torah is forever and for all eternity. --Tiferet Yisrael 53:4-5
This is part of a broader discussion on what parts of the Torah will be perpetual and what might be nullified.
Another appearance is in Drashot Maharal, Drush L'Shabbat HaGadol by Judah Loew of Prague (Maharal):
ובמדרש (ילקו"ש ב', תק"ו) ונשא השעיר עליו את כל עונותם אל ארץ גזרה נוטל הקב"ה עונותיהם של ישראל ונותנן על עשו הרשע שנאמר ונשא השעיר עליו ואין שעיר אלא עשו שנאמר הן עשו אחי איש שעיר את כל עונותם אמר עשו מה כח יש לי שאתה נותן לי עונות יעקב אחי באותה שעה נוטל הקב"ה את כל עונותם ונותנם על בגדיו ונעשים אדומים שנאמר מדוע אדום ללבושך יושב ומכבסן עד שנעשים לבנים שנאמר לבושיה כתלג חיור. ויש לדקדק למה נותן את כל עונותם על עשו ולמה נותנן על לבושו. אבל יראה כי הם הם הדברים אשר אמרנו למעלה, כי חטא ישראל הוא מצד יצה"ר אשר מתגרה בישראל ועשו וזרעו הן הן יצה"ר של ישראל, ובבטול האומה הזאת מן העולם אז יתבטל יצה"ר מישראל. ורמז זה הכתוב הן עשו אחי איש שעי"ר במספרו היצר הרע, ואין ספק כי יעקב ועשו הם נגד יצר טוב ויצה"ר כאשר ידוע למבינים, ולכך אמר שנתן חטא יעקב על עשו. שכבר אמרנו כי יעקב הוא טהור וקדוש מצד עצמו רק שהחטאים הם באים מבחוץ על יעקב מצד היצה"ר, ולכך נותן החטאים על עשו אחיו. ואומר עשו מה כח יש לי כו', ר"ל כי אין דבר גירוי בישראל הזה מכח עשו רק כי כך גזר הקב"ה. ואמר שנותנן על לבושיו, כי המדות שהוא יתעלה מתלבש בהן נקרא מלבוש שלו, ולכך נותן חטא ישראל על מלבושיו, ואומר שיושב הקב"ה ומכבס לבושו, כי הוא יתעלה מקוה טהור ----ומטהר ומסלק החטא עמו שאמרנו:
AI translation:
In the Midrash (Yalkut Shimoni, Part 2, 506), regarding "The goat shall bear upon it all their iniquities to a remote land" (Leviticus 16:22), the Holy One, blessed be He, takes the sins of Israel and places them upon the wicked Esau, as it is written, "The goat shall bear upon it," and "goat" refers only to Esau, as it is said, "Behold, my brother Esau is a hairy man" (Genesis 27:11). "All their iniquities"—Esau says, "What power do I have that you give me the sins of my brother Jacob?" At that moment, the Holy One, blessed be He, takes all their iniquities and places them upon his garments, and they become red, as it is said, "Why is your apparel red?" (Isaiah 63:2). He sits and washes them until they become white, as it is said, "His garments are white as snow" (cf. Daniel 7:9).
It is worth examining why He places all their iniquities upon Esau and why upon his garments. It seems that this aligns with what we said earlier: the sin of Israel comes from the evil inclination (yetzer hara) that incites Israel, and Esau and his descendants are themselves the evil inclination of Israel. With the nullification of this nation from the world, the evil inclination will be nullified from Israel. This is hinted at in the verse, "Behold, my brother Esau is a hairy man (ish sa’ir)," where "sa’ir" numerically equals "yetzer hara" (evil inclination). There is no doubt that Jacob and Esau correspond to the good inclination (yetzer tov) and the evil inclination (yetzer hara), as is known to those who understand. Therefore, it is said that the sin of Jacob is placed upon Esau. As we have already stated, Jacob is pure and holy by his nature, and sins come to him externally through the evil inclination. Thus, the sins are placed upon his brother Esau. Esau says, "What power do I have?"—meaning that there is no incitement in Israel from Esau’s power, but rather it is so decreed by the Holy One, blessed be He. It says that He places them upon his garments, for the attributes through which He, may He be exalted, manifests are called His garments. Therefore, the sins of Israel are placed upon His garments, and it says that the Holy One, blessed be He, sits and washes His garments, for He is the pure mikveh (ritual bath) that purifies and removes the sin, as we have said.--Drashot Maharal, Drush L'Shabbat HaGadol: Drush Al Hamitzvot 48
Jewish commentator RaMBaN (not to be confused with RaMBaM) says:
Now Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra wrote: “Said Rav Shmuel: ‘Although it is [only] with reference to the goat of the sin-offering that it is written [explicitly] that it was for the Eternal, the goat which was sent away [to Azazel] was also for the Eternal.’ But there is no need for this [comment]. For the goat which was sent away was not an “offering’ since it was not slaughtered. Now if you can understand the secret of the word after ‘Azazel,’ you will know its secret [that of Azazel] and the secret of its name, since it has companions in Scripture. And I will reveal to you part of the secret by hint: when you will be at thirty-three you will know it.” [Thus far are the words of Ibn Ezra]. Now of Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra it may be said that he that is of a faithful spirit concealeth a matter, and I will not be the talebearer who revealeth his secret, since our Rabbis of blessed memory have already revealed it in many places. Thus they have said in Bereshith Rabbah: “And the ‘sa’ir’ shall carry upon him, this is a reference to Esau, as it is said, Behold, Esau my brother is a man who is ‘sa’ir’ (hairy). All ‘avonotham’ (their iniquities), [read]: ‘avonoth tam’ (the sins of him who has been called tam, ‘a man of integrity’), as it is said, and Jacob was a man ‘tam’ (‘of integrity’).” It is explained more clearly in the Chapters of the great Rabbi Eliezer: “The reason why they would give Sammael [i.e., Satan] a conciliatory gift on the Day of Atonement, was so that he should not annul [the effect of] their offerings, as it is said, one lot for the Eternal, and the other lot for Azazel, the lot of the Holy One, blessed by He, to be a burnt-offering, and the lot of Azazel to be ‘the goat of sin,’ bearing upon it all the iniquities of Israel, as it is said, And the goat shall bear upon him all their iniquities--Ramban on Leviticus 16:8:1
Here RaMBaN tells you all you need to know even the history of keeping this secret.
Still another:
When you consider all that we have written and quoted on this subject you will be convinced that there most certainly cannot be a question of the scapegoat being an offering, a sacrifice to a Satanic force called Azzazel. All strife, war, etc., in the world have their origin in that domain where Satan-Se'ir, the other name for Esau and the negative character traits he symbolizes, reign supreme. This is the force which welcomes this scapegoat laden with sin. All goats, both male and female, are part of his domain. The nearest “relative” of this Satan-Samael-Azzazel is Esau and the nation descended from it. Esau already bore the name שעיר, a hairy man, as the antithesis of Yaakov the “smooth” man. The land in which he settled was named after him, and when pagans used to offer sacrifices to the שעירים, the he-goats, representing brute physical force and obstinacy, this was their way of paying homage to the ideals represented by Esau.--Rabbeinu Bahya, Vayikra 16:7:7
Another:
According to the Mishna, a red thread was tied to the scapegoat, and “red” (Edom) was Esau’s other name. So there was a tradition that the scapegoat in some way symbolised Esau. Azazel, the mysterious place or entity for which the goat was intended, was Samael, Esau’s guardian angel.--Covenant and Conversation; Leviticus; The Book of Holiness, Achrei Mot, Thinking Fast and Slow 5
Another medieval rabbi vague alludes:
ויאמר יעקב אל רבקה אמו הן עשו אחי איש שעיר ואנכי איש חלק. בראשית רבה איש שעיר. כמה דאת אמר ושעירים ירקדו שם (ישעיה יג כא). ואנכי איש חלק כמה דאת אמר כי חלק יי' עמו. וממה שרמזנו למעלה בענין יעקב ועשו תבין זה. וסוד גדיי העזים והמטעמים נרמוז בענין יום הכפורים בגזירת האל. ויונתן תרגם ויבא לו יין וישת ואזדמן ליה מלאכא דיי' ואייתי מן חמרא דאצנע בעינבוי מן יומי שירוי עלמא ויהביה ביד יעקב ויעקב אמטי ליה לאבוי לאכול ושתי:
AI translation:
And Jacob said to Rebecca his mother, "Behold, Esau my brother is a hairy man, and I am a smooth man" (Genesis 27:11). In Bereshit Rabbah (65:14): "A hairy man"—as it is said, "And goats (se’irim) shall dance there" (Isaiah 13:21). "And I am a smooth man"—as it is said, "For the Lord’s portion is His people" (Deuteronomy 32:9). And from what we hinted at earlier regarding the matter of Jacob and Esau, you will understand this. The secret of the kids of the goats and the delicacies will be hinted at in the matter of Yom Kippur, by the decree of God.--Recanati on the Torah
He largely told the reader Esau=goat.
Finally, a modern rabbi A.L. Scheinbaum comments,
"The Yalkut cites what seems to be a Midrash Pliah, a Midrash whose rationale eludes us...In his Tiferes Yonasan, Horav Yonasan Eibshutz, zl, wonders why Eisav has to be the receptacle for Jewish sin... When Klal Yisrael's sins are brought before the Heavenly Tribunal to be prosecuted, the angel Gavriel comes forward to defend them. "Ribono Shel Olam," he begins, "All of these transgressions are really the fault of Eisav haRasha. The Jewish people are no more than students of his evil ways. Perhaps they might be called good students, but students no less. Therefore, the sins of Your people should be placed on Eisav's head, for he is to blame."--Peninim on the Torah, Parashas Acharei Mos, p 209-210
I have not been able to find the passage as Scheinbaum describe it, perhaps he embellished it, or as a document I cannot find!
As you can see, the Rabbis have no problem with Esau bearing and taking away the sins of Israel!